Analyse the strengths and weaknesses of one named globalization index.

“Individuals, national governments and international organizations are increasingly resistant to global interactions.” Discuss this statement.

Expect either the KOF or Kearney index to be selected. There are other possibilities, for example, Maastricht globalization index; CSGR (Warwick); Ernst & Young.

Strengths include the multi-strand approach taken, recognizing that globalization comprises a range of processes that need to be measured, for example, KOF distinguishes between political, social and economic measures of globalization while Kearney uses four categories (economic, personal, technological or political integration).

Weaknesses can be conceptual (what is not included) or empirical (difficulties in collecting data and accuracy issues), for example, KOF’s measures of social globalization are easily critiqued, such as the “proximity” of data.

For band C, one recognizable index of globalization should be described in a way that implies it has merit (has different strands) and may state one or two basic weaknesses.

To access band D, expect:

• either more detailed knowledge of the chosen multi-strand index (with some attempt made to describe some weakness)
• or greater understanding of the weaknesses of economic and social data collection/comparisons in general (eg appreciates different perspectives on what is viewed as important; knows about flaws in survey methodology).

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Other approaches may be equally valid. Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Global interactions should be defined as a broad set of economic and sociocultural exchanges.

At the individual scale, a range of civil society initiatives can be discussed, such as Occupy/anti-globalization and, at the other end of the political spectrum, anti-immigration/nationalists [Guide 7]. However, some individuals continue to embrace the shrinking world [Guide 2] for a range of economic/cultural reasons [Guide 5].

Evidence of resistance at the national level might include individual government attitudes towards the arrival of global media corporations [Guide 5] or towards immigration and diaspora growth [Guide 5] or towards MGO membership [Guide 6]. However, governments also recognize the advantages of globalization, free trade and financial flows [Guide 5].

The concept of “international organizations” embraces MGOs [Guide 6] and international aid and development agencies responsible for financial flows, such as the politically-guided work of the IMF [Guide 2]. It is likely that candidates will choose to argue against the statement at this final scale.

Because the question specifies three scales of resistance, there are several routes to discussing the statement. One might be to offer some counterarguments (eg shows that some national governments embrace global interactions). Another might be to discuss the extent to which resistance is exhibited by individuals compared with governments and international organizations. Another might be to consider whether different kinds of interaction meet with varying strength or resistance (eg China embracing trade but resists information exchange). Each approach must be assessed on its own merits. However, a response that merely agrees with the statement cannot progress beyond the band C/D border.

For band C, resistance to global interactions must be identified at all three scales, with description provided of at least two.

To access band D, expect:

• either broader knowledge of a range of reactions, at some different scales (thereby allowing the truth of the statement to be discussed, eg by comparing negative reactions at different scales; or by comparing positive and negative reactions at some of the specified scales ie individuals, governments and organizations)
• or some explicit discussion of the way that different types of global interaction may prompt different kinds of reaction at one/some of the specified scales.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Explain how and why glocalization occurs.

Examine the reasons for the resistance to globalization on either the national or local scale.

Candidates would be expected to define the term glocalization and good responses would benefit from using examples. Glocalization is a term that was invented in order to emphasize that the globalization of a product is more likely to succeed when the product or service is adapted specifically to each locality or culture in which it is marketed. The term combines the word globalization with localization.

The increasing presence of McDonald’s restaurants worldwide is an example of globalization, while the restaurant chain’s menu changes in an attempt to appeal to local palates are an example of glocalization. Perhaps even more illustrative of glocalization, for promotions in France, the restaurant chain replaced its familiar Ronald McDonald mascot with Asterix the Gaul, a popular French cartoon character. Similar adaptations are found with other products such as clothes and music.

To attain band D and above responses should clearly explain the term glocalization and are likely to include examples.

Other approaches may be equally valid and should be assessed on their merits.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Resistance to globalization is in response to real or perceived negative change that has occurred or may occur during the process. Answers are likely to examine a range of reasons, including cultural (cultural contrasts, disregard for a particular religion or customs, cultural imperialism), political (domination by other nations or TNCs), economic (domination, possibly including conditions imposed by international institutions such as the IMF, economic leakage from tourism) and environmental (damage from resource exploitation or transfer of polluting industries and waste).

Reaction to the impacts of TNCs may be a catalyst for resistance. Some parts of civil society (including NGOs) may initiate or strengthen resistance, especially in regard to a particular issue. The growth of ICT and the media now means that resistance can be further strengthened at rates that were previously impossible. For instance, the diffusion of anti-globalist sentiment can be carried out via texting or mobile devices, to coordinate protest activity.

Resistance may be spurred on by a resurgence of nationalism. Resistance may also arise in nations that choose to isolate themselves or limit their involvement in globalization.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Analyse the increasing influence of one multi-governmental organization you have studied.

“Global interactions bring negative effects, rather than positive effects, to every part of the world.” Discuss this statement.

Likely examples include the EU, NAFTA or the BRICS group (which has had annual meetings since 2009). Also credit other examples of global governance with a multi-governmental character, such as the IMF, World Bank, G8, OPEC, NATO, OECD. Also credit the UN, or UN-sponsored agencies. An analysis of the influence of a specific global conference or agreement/protocol (climate change meetings in Kyoto, Doha, etc) could reach band D/E provided that it is explicitly shown to be the product of multi-governmental collaboration, organization or debate (if not, limit such responses to band C).

Multi-governmental organizations (MGOs) influence the way citizens, civil society and businesses operate by relaxing barriers to certain types of global flow/movement (migrants, tourists, goods, capital, etc). A key issue is the diminishing effectiveness of political borders.

Alternative approaches might analyse the political influence that MGOs have over the governance of sovereign states:

• EU states must agree to adopt legislation from European Parliament (some may even know of the growing influence of Germany as a driver of EU policy affecting Greece during Eurozone crisis)
• IMF insistence on economic reform/adjustments in countries seeking loans, sometimes critiqued as a neo-colonial form of influence
• UN human rights rulings/war tribunals/peace-keeping operations
• NATO or other military alliances and their actions
• the macro-economic influence of OPEC during the 1970s (another approach might be to analyse why OPEC’s influence has ceased to increase since)
• the growing influence of the BRICS group (especially Chinese and Indian investment in African countries).

At band D, expect either description of some range of ways in which an MGO is influential, or some chronology/explanation of why its influence is increasing.

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Three likely ways to discuss the statement (there may be others) are as follows:

• one way is to assess the net effect for a range of generic global concerns (“every part of the world” is thus interpreted as “the world”)
• another way is to agree that there are few positives associated with global interactions, notably environmental effects, and to then address the extent to which particular places, especially isolated/wilderness regions [Guide 7], have suffered
• alternatively, candidates may offer a place-by-place or regional audit eg compares/discusses South America, Africa, USA, etc.

Likely themes for discussion include:

• financial flows [Guide 3] and workplace exploitation, balanced against the alleviation of poverty
• cultural interactions can bring homogeneity but also bring new forms of culture, and hybridity [Guide 5] but this must be balanced against the loss of authentic differences and the ways in which adopted cultural traits enable “exploitative” or consumerist TNCs to gain leverage to penetrate new markets, etc
• migration brings a range of effects for host and source regions [Guide 5]; these should be carefully weighed and, ideally, a genuine evaluation given (rather than listed costs and benefits)
• environmental harm is likely to be a major theme [Guide 4]; some may argue that accelerated climate change stems from accelerated global interactions (accept this view), opening the way for a thoughtful discussion of predicted changes (including some beneficial ones, eg thermal growing season).

Good answers may provide some discussion of the extent of these effects (the interrogation of whether “every place” is affected) and may focus on “un-globalized” societies eg Amazonian tribes [Guide 7], ocean pathways for pollution and plastic-strewn coral atolls, Antarctic beaches, etc.

At band D, there should be either a detailed explanation of a variety of effects or a more critical discussion of the net balance/spread of effects.

For band E, expect both.

Some excellent answers were seen that addressed “influence” in multiple ways. Trade, geopolitics and migration were common themes that candidates using the EU or NAFTA explored. These were far and away the most popular examples, although a small minority wrote about Mercosur. Middle-ability candidates were sometimes shaky on important details, such as the number of EU member states.

Well-informed and well-revised candidates were likely to attain band D, as this was achievable by synthesizing a series of “positive” and “negative” case studies of almost any variety and concluding that global interactions have brought “mixed” results. Far fewer candidates displayed the ability to produce a nuanced evaluation of the statement that was more sensitive to the concepts of geographical place and scale. Where band E marks were awarded, candidates had generally progressed beyond a mere “costs and benefits” approach and were able to focus on the veracity of the statement that every part of the world is adversely affected by global interactions. They debated explicitly whether effects such as the spread of English language, or diffusion of plastic pollution in the oceans, are truly globalized phenomena or not.

Using examples, analyse the benefits of globalized production for local societies.

To what extent is environmental sustainability incompatible with the growth of globalization?

The different local societies may be in producer or consumer nations/areas. States can be treated as "local" places within a global context.

Examples of “globalized production” can be taken from any sector of industry: agribusiness, manufacturing or service sector (eg the outsourcing of call centres). The benefits for producer nations/areas could be economic (including multipliers, cheaper mass-produced goods, etc) and/or social (eg improved work opportunities for women, increased family wages and thus educational opportunities for children). Also credit the idea of increased consumer choice (eg fast food).

There are also benefits for local societies/regions that are now consumer/post-industrial regions, following global shift/relocation of polluting industries. It can be argued that they have “re-invented” themselves as cleaner, higher-wage societies that additionally benefit from cheap imports of global goods from producer regions.

Do not credit benefits for TNCs, or disadvantages for local societies, as neither is asked for by the question. Any such material should be deemed irrelevant.

For band C, two benefits of globalized production should be described in relation to local society/societies in general.

For band D, expect analysis of either a wider range of benefits and/or recognizable local societies, or a structured account that conceptualizes some different kinds of globalized production.

At band E, expect all of these elements.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus should be whether environmental sustainability – the idea that future generations should enjoy the same landscapes, ecosystem services, resources, etc that are available for living generations – cannot be guaranteed if globalization continues along its current trajectory (with resulting environmental degradation).

Globalization is the growing economic interdependence of the world, accompanied by increased global flows of goods, people, capital, information. The “growth” of globalization is associated with high economic growth rates in emerging economies/NICs/BRICs and this may be commented on/highlighted as an area of particular environmental concern, along with the already large footprint of the USA and, to a lesser extent, Japan, Australia, NZ and EU nations. Some answers may lack focus on globalization/sustainability and instead describe how human activity in general results in problems such as acid rain, eutrophication and nuclear accidents (to name but a few). Such partial answers may still reach the band C/D border if they are sufficiently synthetic (see below).

Possible themes for synthesis linked to sustainability/globalization include:

• growth of core regions [Guide 1]
• growth of transport networks for people and commodities [Guide 2]
• ICT and information flows (may have lower footprint) [Guide 3]
• agribusinesses, polluting industries and waste movements [Guide 4]
• environmental awareness and green messaging [Guide 4]
• food miles and air freight [Guide 4]
• globalization of branded commodities (and implications for resource use and waste) [Guide 5]
• de-industrialization and outsourcing [Guide 2,3]
• some local sourcing movements are rooted in anti-globalization/sustainability rhetoric [Guide 7].

Good answers scoring highly at AO3 may evaluate the extent to which some aspects of globalization are less harmful to the environment than others. Alternatively, a good inquiry of “to what extent” might take the view that growing global environmental awareness, or global cooperation on environmental issues and “technical fixes”, can ameliorate environmental degradation and may yet mean that long-term environmental sustainability is possible.

For band D there should either be a structured synthesis of several well-evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or a properly evidenced conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) that considers the extent to which the statement is true.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Explain what is meant by cultural imperialism.

“Global interactions always lead to positive environmental change.” Discuss this statement.

A definition of cultural imperialism supported by further expansion is expected. One suitable definition would be: “The promotion and imposition of the cultural traits of one nation upon another; a consequence of globalization”. The supporting explanation should identify the following aspects of cultural imperialism, developing some of them further as shown below.

• Cultural imperialism involves cultural traits, their means of transfer, and their consequences.
• Cultural traits include language, consumerism, customs, morals, art, architecture, religion and education.
• The means of transfer include education, ICT, communications, the media, TNCs, trade and tourism.
• The consequences may include dilution or loss of indigenous culture and the imposition of traits of the dominant culture.

The best responses will incorporate examples, such as the “Japanization” of South Korea.

It is not necessary for responses to consider all aspects of cultural imperialism, provided that a range of traits and some mention of a variety of means of transfer is expressed.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

It is expected that better responses will consider both positive and negative effects of global interactions.

Positive consequences of global interactions might include the introduction of improved technologies by some TNCs and the work of civil societies (including NGOs such as Greenpeace). International environmental agreements, such as the Kyoto Protocol, and the spread of knowledge and awareness of environmental issues through education might also be discussed.

Negative consequences include the degradation of landscapes and creation of homogenized landscapes due to agro-industrialization and globalization of cityscapes.

Some international interactions are reciprocal, in that benefits at the source may be counterbalanced by adverse consequences at the destination (movement of polluting industries; transfer of waste).

The best responses accessing bands E/F will discuss both urban and rural areas and a range of economic activities, such as the exploitation of natural resources, manufacturing and services including tourism. They may also discuss examples at a range of scales.

It is not essential for responses to treat positive and negative consequences of global interactions in equal depth. A good discussion of one may compensate for a weaker discussion of the other.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Analyse recent growth trends in the use of ICT for one or more countries or regions you have studied.

Examine the changing global pattern of sociocultural interactions, referring to core regions and peripheral areas.

There are many possible approaches to answering this question.

The focus could be on:

• actual ICT network growth/adoption trends (in terms of numbers of subscribers/device owners/intensity of use/places where there is uptake)
• growth of a single/narrower aspect of ICT adoption (eg mobile phone use, social networking, broadband provision)
• the growing uses of ICT in civil society (more people exchanging ideas, information, finance) and/or changing rates of social adoption.

Weaker answers are likely to provide isolated fragments of information about different places, or may offer a technology timeline with little geographical content.

Good answers may provide a clear geographical focus (perhaps named countries eg M-Pesa in Kenya or ICT outsourcing in India) and give some depth of analysis of how and why ICT uptake has changed, and who the users are.

At band D, there should be either detailed description of ICT growth/adoption trends or explanation of ways in which ICT is being used by people/groups/TNCs.

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Global sociocultural interactions can encompass migration and diaspora, social networking, cultural shifts (in spoken language, music, fashion, cuisine, etc), the spread of global media and the diffusion of branded commodities (all [Guide 7]). The response should examine a range of such interactions and may address reasons for their growth over time (technology, TNCs) [Guide 2, Guide 5].

A sound examination of global sociocultural interactions may illustrate the ongoing role that “core” regions/countries have in bringing cultural change to other places.

• concepts such as “cultural imperialism” or “soft power” may be employed and should be credited if used [Guide 5]
• it may be argued that these interactions have intensified due to technology and TNCs [Guide 5]
• done well, and with sufficient synthesis of themes, this approach, though simple, could reach the higher bands
• perhaps a global core/hub and periphery/semi-periphery framework will be used [Guide 3].

Good answers may explicitly address the changing pattern/new locations of global cultural influence, notably emerging economies such as the BRIC nations (India’s Bollywood film, Brazil’s Bossa Nova music, etc). Some may even consider the extent to which a long-established US–EU (core) hegemony is under threat.

Credit other valid interpretations, but material on financial interactions (eg remittance flows) should be marked as irrelevant or not answering the question. Some answers may lack conceptual grounding, but usefully employ a good range of anecdotal/documentary evidence that draws on a candidate’s own lifestyle, eg familiarity with South Korea’s K-pop phenomenon and Psy (a major music trend of 2012 that will be very familiar to the age group who will have sat the paper).

At band D, expect either explanation of a wide, detailed range of sociocultural interactions, or a more critical examination of a changing pattern over time.

For band E, expect both.

Those that attempted this question generally knew something about call centres in India, or the uptake of mobile phones in Kenya. The best answers addressed the stem phrase “growth trends” and understood that supporting data would, logically, gain more marks. Weaker answers tended to assert that “high” and “low” use of ICT could be seen in different countries around the world, due to disparities in economic development.

Some excellent answers were seen, when judged against their knowledge of different processes of sociocultural interactions, such as assimilation, glocalization or hybridization. Lively and informative supporting examples were provided, and centres are encouraged to suggest to candidates that they research local examples, rather than rely purely on textbook case studies of McDonald’s. Fewer candidates engaged quite as well with the word “pattern” which often resulted in a band D, rather than band E, mark being awarded. Interrelationships were sometimes hinted at but not fully explored (such as the tendency of Hollywood to increasingly adopt Indian, South Korean or Japanese tropes, for instance).

Explain how agro-industrialization contributes to environmental degradation.

“Cultural diffusion is a process that takes place in many ways but can be halted by many barriers.” Discuss this statement.

The term agro-industrialization describes commercial, large-scale agricultural operations (typically conducted by/on behalf of TNCs such as Cargill, Monsanto, Nestle, McDonald’s etc.).

Degradation may be mapped at local or global scales, and themes may include: carbon emissions/food miles, biodiversity losses, water extraction/water scarcity/water footprint issues, soil erosion/nutrient depletion, eutrophication, sedimentation, forest/mangrove losses, “virtual water” losses. There are many other possible themes.

To access band C, a range of ideas should be explained (expect at least two in some depth, or the briefer outlining of a wider range). For band E, expect some named locations to be mentioned, or different types/sectors of agro-industry to be identified, or good links to be established with the actions of named agro-industrial TNCs.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Pathways for cultural diffusion include the movements of workers and tourists who carry cultural traits with them [Guide 5]. A wide variety of traits could be explored, such as language, religion, arts and music, cuisine, fashion etc. The movement of commodities and the diffusion of the internet and films, orchestrated by technology, TNCs and global media corporations respectively, are other key ways in which “messages” are transmitted [Guide 2]. Military and imperial ventures could also be discussed. A “Trojan horse” strategy of contemporary glocalization [Guide 7] could be explored – wherein western cultural icons (for example, denim, burgers etc.) gain access to foreign markets by donning “cultural camouflage”). MGO membership – notably the EU – also aids cultural transfers by easing restrictions on a variety of flows and pathways for cultural diffusion (such as greater freedom of movement for people or goods) [Guide 6].

The barriers may be physical, political, economic or cultural and they can include nationalism and anti-globalization movements and sentiments [Guide 6 and 7]. A range of local responses could be explored that challenge cultural imperialism [Guide 5] or at least negotiate glocalized outcomes in ways that restrict the pace of cultural change (censorship of Google in China is one example).

To access bands D and E, the answer should be well balanced between coverage of the processes themselves and of possible barriers to their operation. The best answers may look beyond a “black and white” world (where processes of exchange either do or do not operate) and might critically explore ways in which global cultural exchanges are negotiated locally, resulting in partial or selective transfers of culture that bring into being new hybridized cultural forms (language, art, music or cuisine often show a “fusion” of different influences).

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Many candidates reached bands C and D of the markscheme by providing a range of valid examples of degradation linked to some degree with "large-scale" agriculture. Often, the explanations (for example, of eutrophication) were in-depth. However, a precise understanding of – or exemplification of – actual agro-industrialization was at times lacking. Thus, a very good answer might note that "cattle ranchers producing meat for McDonald's have to carry out their activities on an enormous scale to meet rising global demand. This is resulting in mass removal of forest both for ranching and for growing cattle food, for example, soya in Brazil". (Incidentally, blanket statements were sometimes made which were not necessarily accurate – for example, deforestation in Brazil is now less due to cattle ranching and more likely linked to Brazilian agriculture's turn towards soya production.)

Candidates are, by and large, beginning to show good familiarity with cultural geography themes and concepts. Even weaker candidates could name-drop cultural imperialism and glocalization as important ideas to be reckoned with. Strong answers properly discussed the statement. For example, some good candidates queried whether glocalization should be seen primarily as evidence that globalization gets "halted" by cultural barriers (that require TNCs to make changes to their products); or whether the practice of glocalization offers proof that TNCs will always find ways to overcome cultural/religious/economic/political barriers. Good answers to this question often showed very good understanding of the synthetic aspect of the question and were able to weave their way around the guide fairly expertly.

Using examples, analyse how foreign direct investment and glocalization are used by transnational corporations (TNCs) to help their expansion.

Examine the relationship between a country’s gross national income (GNI) and its level of participation in globalization.

Foreign direct investment (FDI) includes a range of different kinds of overseas investments made by transnational corporations (TNCs). These include: hiring outsourcing services (employing a third party to handle goods or services), establishing a “spatial division of labour” (building/buying company-owned branch plants or back offices in low-cost locations), mergers, acquisitions and franchises. Credit other possible financial outgoings (eg TNCs working alongside charities). Good answers should recognize more than one type of FDI, using examples.

Glocalization describes the adapting of a “universal” product to meet the cultural requirements of local markets (religion, taste, legal requirements may all vary from territory to territory). Glocalization is also linked to local sourcing strategies (using local suppliers), which may have political dimensions too (TNCs may be required to work with local partners eg in India). 

Candidates could comment on how geographic expansion is achieved through use of these strategies. TNCs achieve greater profits/market share through their geographic strategies, and can win local acceptance by embracing local people’s culture.

Candidates may additionally analyse how different strategies suit different TNCs (oil companies may not glocalize to the extent retailers do), or may analyse the weaknesses and not just the strengths of strategies.

Band C answers may describe examples of glocalization and/or FDI but with a lack of terminology and little mention of expansion (beyond asserting that it happens).

At band D, expect either a more detailed, exemplified explanation of both strategies (but do not expect balance) or some explicit analysis of how market expansion is achieved by particular TNCs.

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Candidates will have studied global participation with reference to the Kearney or KOF globalization indices, which recognize economic, social and political strands of globalization. Therefore, accept a wide interpretation of what is meant by “participation” in globalization.

Possible themes suggesting a positive relationship between GNI and participation:

• well-known indexes (eg, KOF index) show high globalization scores for countries with a high GNI, as a rule [Guide 1]
• foreign direct investment by TNCs can bring many financial benefits that lead in turn to greater global economic participation for businesses and citizens (if incomes grow, allowing people to consume more globally-produced services or participate in tourism) [Guide 3)
• levels of sociocultural participation (an aspect of KOF) may also be higher for high-income countries [Guide 5]
• the role of remittances can be explored, as flows often take place between richer and poorer countries [Guide 3]
• poorer societies remain “non-globalized” eg, Amazonian tribes [Guide 7]
• poorer nations only experience one-way interactions – their assets are stripped by powerful nations/TNCs (raw materials, landgrabs) [Guide 4].

A more critical, thoughtful or nuanced response might take the view that:

• there are many types of global participation/interactions. People may participate in economic globalization but not necessarily cultural globalization (eg, Chinese factory workers with limited internet freedoms) [Guide 1]
• scale/disparities may be important. Some nations with higher GNI are “two-speed” societies: elite groups participate globally, not poorer groups [Guide 1]
• the relationship could be complex in the case of a migratory “brain drain” – remittances may boost GNI, but out-migration could reduce GNI too [Guide 3]
• the role of other aid/loans can be discussed – low GNI nations may be major beneficiaries of certain types of global financial flow [Guide 3]
• there are other possible exceptions/anomalies to the rule that can help lift a response into bands D/E.

At band C, some links between GNI/wealth and globalization should be described.

Band D should either provide a wider, detailed explanation of different links between GNI and participation or offer a more critical examination of what is meant by a country’s “participation in globalization”.

At band E, expect both.

While most candidates attempting this question were pleasingly familiar with glocalization, there was less familiarity with foreign direct investment (FDI). Some candidates explained why TNCs invest in foreign crime in order to reduce their costs (implying, perhaps, that such benefits might help a company’s future expansion). Only a few were able to demonstrate much understanding of how FDI flows operate beyond "building a factory". The best answers looked at outsourcing, while a tiny minority were aware of the geographical importance of mergers and joint ventures. Although McDonald’s is still the preferred case study of choice for candidates and teachers, most candidates remain in complete ignorance of how the company’s presence in India is in the form of a joint venture. This goes a long way to explaining why it has been so successful at glocalizing its products in India, due to the expert local knowledge of its Indian partner companies.

The command to “examine the relationship” (as opposed to “explain the relationship”) required candidates, ideally, to outline what underlying assumptions they would be making, preferably in their introduction. Weaker candidates generally established a simple positive correlation at the outset. Better answers suggested anomalies/outliers might need to be looked at too. At the very top end of the cohort, a small minority of candidates thought there could even be a reversal of the assumed relationship, whereby a wealthy country could maintain a degree of cultural isolation, whilst poorer countries sometimes become the global focus for international assistance and intervention, as in the case of Haiti. Sadly, most candidates did no more than assert that a strong positive relationship exists. To the credit of many, they performed a synthesis by suggesting that countries with a high GNI are likely to be home to many powerful TNCs, to be capable of cultural imperialism and to be highly attractive to economic migrants. Good answers sometimes made effective use of the KOF or Kearney index and demonstrated how some wealthy countries like the USA and UK score highly in all categories. However, it was a pity that more use was not made of interesting examples, such as China, which shows high participation in some ways but not in others.

Explain how global interactions can foster environmental awareness.

“International interactions always result in the homogenization of culture.” Discuss this statement.

There are many possible approaches. Responses may focus on examples of improved awareness in a single country or may consider the global realm of environmental management. Examples of the latter include response to transboundary pollution, such as oil spills or acid rain, and global climate change governance. They may also possess knowledge of global ecological/conservation initiatives such as Ramsar, WWF, and UNESCO.

The work of NGOs such as Greenpeace may also be explored. Candidates may examine the environmental messages that are sent as well as explaining the medium through which they are transmitted/type of global interaction (for example, internet, Facebook etc.).

Another approach is to argue that global interactions are often environmentally damaging and that we cannot help but be aware of them (for example, Gulf of Mexico oil spill or climate change).

Another response might look at how international movements of waste have improved environmental management for source countries who have simply paid to dispose of their problems elsewhere (for example, waste sent to China for recycling) and it may be noted that awareness of this trend is growing.

To access bands D and E, the response should do more than list green initiatives; it should also tie them to the concept of global interactions. Good answers may also ask whose awareness has been raised – civil society, corporations, governments etc.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The nature of international interactions should be made explicit. Pathways for cultural exchanges include the movement of workers, tourists, commodity flows, and military and imperial ventures, all of which can be accelerated by membership of multi-governmental organizations, such as the EU, NAFTA, ASEAN etc. [Guide 6].

It is not true that homogenization is an inevitable outcome. Possible obstacles include nationalism and anti-globalization movements, as well as a range of local responses that challenge cultural imperialism or at least negotiate “glocalized” outcomes [Guide 7].

There is plenty of scope to discuss arts, music, cuisine and other fields of cultural expression, and to investigate hybridized outcomes – or to look at the obduracy of cultural traits among diaspora groups, meaning that cultural diversity is not lost in global hubs such as New York or Toronto [Guide 5].

In support of the statement, expect TNCs to feature, with some mention of “McDonaldization” or a similar argument using Starbucks, Disney etc. as examples, or broad observations about the spread of English and Spanish perhaps employing the concept of cultural imperialism. The strongest answers may critique the notion of glocalization, and question whether the innovation of a “curry burger” for the Indian McDonald’s franchise is truly symptomatic of heterogeneity [Guide 3 and 5].

The role of technology and the internet in fostering homogeneity through the relation of the shrinking world/global village may also be a feature [Guide 2].

To access bands D and E, both sides of the argument should be addressed, although balance need not be expected.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

One striking general weakness observed here was that many responses were insufficiently focused on how global interactions can foster environmental awareness. Answers could often explain "why" (for instance, it was widely argued that global awareness of climate change is inadvertently fostered by the careless polluting actions of TNCs that have come to the public's attention) but could not address "how" (that is, the processes or pathways that link global interactions to environmental awareness).

Good answers sometimes looked at use of global media (old and new) by NGOs; global diffusion of films such as "An Inconvenient Truth" (and the follow-up globetrotting of Al Gore, celebrities and academics, in order to help raise awareness of important issues); or the idea of representatives of nations "interacting" at key global environmental meetings and conferences such as Stockholm, Kyoto, Copenhagen etc. "Environmental awareness" was equated to "hazard awareness" by a few; there is some legitimate topic overlap, but they are really not equivalents and such responses tended to be self-limiting. Overall, there were some very strong answers to this question, the most popular of the three on the paper.

There were some strong answers to this question that used a commendable range of appropriate examples. In many cases, the net was thrown wide, allowing plenty of credit for assessment objective 3 to be awarded as candidates synthesized a mixture of ideas dealing with TNCs, diaspora groups, nationalism, global media and more.

Weaker answers showed little understanding of what "culture" does, or does not, include (and had little idea of cultural traits, for instance). They also tended to see changes of culture in a very simplistic way. For example, many argued that TNCs or other global interactions "destroy" local culture. Most interpreted any change at all as being towards homogenization, even when the influence of incoming cultural forces was limited and a more logical and appropriate conclusion might have been that local culture had undergone "diversification" (pleasingly, some employed terminology such as hybridity or glocalization here). Very few could tackle the more complex yet very useful idea (in this context) of culture as a "performance", for instance, in the context of querying the nature of the "loss" when a local tribe retains its traditional clothing or dances/rituals for the tourist gaze but may simultaneously (and more or less invisibly) be adopting a modern/secular/consumerist worldview. This is a complex idea requiring thoughtful evaluation that sadly eluded the majority (but is in fact very important if ideas of cultural change and exchange are to be properly explored). A sensible conclusion reached by some of the best candidates was that true global diversity (in terms of different languages) has fallen (though offset to some degree by proliferation of new hybrid glocalisms). Whereas at a local level, some global hubs/core regions/megacities have witnessed an increase in cultural diversity due to the global interaction of migration. Toronto and London are extremely diverse world cities (however, the "melting pot" hypothesis suggests this hyper-diversity may be transient – over time, differences may lessen at this scale also, as different cultures intermingle).

Analyse the causes and environmental consequences of the international relocation of polluting industries.

“Barriers to globalization are no longer falling but are rising instead.” Discuss this statement.

AO1/2 indicative content:

• The international relocation of polluting industries refers primarily to the global shift of manufacturing from the developed to the developing world; also credit the increased uptake of outsourcing contracts by manufacturers in lower-wage economies.
• The main cause is avoidance of high labour and land costs, and “red tape” in developed countries; but the movement may also be market-driven if new industries are being established in proximity to emerging markets. Another theme might be international movements of recycling industries (and linked flows of e-waste).
• The consequences for people and places vary according to context. They may include impacts on the atmosphere/hydrosphere/biosphere, and short- or long-term health costs for societies.

Good answers may make use of detailed exemplification and/or specialist terminology. Or they may analyse the varied types of cause and environmental consequence, perhaps for different categories of polluting industry, in a well-structured (AO4) way. Another approach might be to analyse some of the temporal (long-term) and spatial (pattern) dimensions of the consequences.

Band D credit may be given for the use of any case studies which illustrate changing global patterns of economic activity – including inward investment, outsourcing, and refuse flows – provided that the causes are relevant and the consequences are environmental (rather than social).

For band C (4–6 marks), expect some weakly evidenced outlining of a narrow range of causes and/or environmental consequences of changing global patterns of economic activity.

For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, well evidenced and balanced analysis which includes:

• either varied and detailed causes of changing global patterns of economic activity
• or detailed environmental consequences of international industrial relocation.

For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Globalization is defined in the subject guide. Real barriers include border controls and walls (political barriers) and virtual firewalls (technological barriers). There are also the real or perceived cultural barriers of language and religion. The concept of a “barrier” is broad and may be interpreted in many ways and from different perspectives.

Possible AO1/2 indicative content:

• falling barriers for data: the shrinking world and time–space convergence [Guide 2]
• falling barriers due to cultural exchange, diaspora growth [Guide 5]
• falling barriers due to the global diffusion of branded commodities [Guide 5]
• increasing barriers for international migration (barriers and/or policies) [Guide 3, 5]
• increasing barriers as governments react to the real or perceived loss of sovereignty through retreat from multigovernmental organizations or increased protectionism [Guide 6, 3]
• isolated societies for whom barriers neither rise nor fall [Guide 7].

Answers scoring highly according to the AO3 criteria for evaluation:

• might offer a structured discussion of different categories of barrier
• might systematically discuss both sides of the argument before arriving at a judgement that progresses beyond simply concluding the statement is both true and false (one approach could be to argue that the statement is more true for some types of global interaction than it is for others)
• might address the truth of the statement on different timescales (eg taking a long view rather than focusing on more recent events only).

For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide focused on whether or not there are barriers to globalization.

For band D (9–12 marks), expect:

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well evidenced and well focused themes from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.

Explain how global core areas (hubs) can be distinguished from peripheral areas.

Examine the geographical consequences of international outsourcing.

Candidates would be expected to define “global core areas/hubs” as significant places that provide a focal point for global flows and activities. They are places where major diaspora groups may be found or may be identified as source regions either for contemporary cultural diffusion (for example, Seattle’s computer industries) or economic imperialism (for example, Washington). The scale at which hubs can be identified is open to interpretation. Small cities like Cambridge (UK) are hubs, but so too are megacities such as Sao Paulo and small states including Monaco and Luxemburg.

Arguably, entire nations such as Singapore and South Korea could be described as hubs at which point the term hub is almost synonymous with “core” in world systems analysis. But an appropriate “core and periphery” analysis in 2011 should not simply echo 1970s World Systems theory. Responses that do not acknowledge this and do not examine more than a simple “MEDC–LEDC” worldview (for example, by at least acknowledging a semi-periphery of emerging economies/NICs) should not progress beyond band C. (Within bands D and E, a good explanation of a fuller range of characteristics could compensate for a more limited description of the hub/periphery pattern.)

At bands D and E, answers need to be focused on how such places can be distinguished from other places and should not just assert that they exist. People and organizations in hubs will display high levels of global participation which could be measured using KOF or AT Kearney indices. They may also host major diasporas or can be mapped as source regions for key “globalized” cultural traits including language (such as English or Spanish). Mapping the head offices of large TNCs is another route of inquiry. Other routes could include a ranking of the competitiveness of financial centres, airports, ports, internet bandwidth availability, reliance on agriculture.

Other approaches may be equally valid.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Outsourcing should be clearly defined as the concept of taking internal company functions and paying an outside firm to handle them [Guide 3]. “Geographical consequences” of outsourcing can encompass economic, political, social, cultural, environmental, geopolitical and demographic themes at varying scales, for both host and source regions. Outsourcing occurs across all sectors of industry from agriculture to high-tech research. It can be a complex affair when strings of sub-contractors (both upstream and downstream linkages) are part of the picture.

Improvements in ICT are an important consequence (due to the need for enhanced videoconferencing capability etc.) and not merely a cause of outsourcing [Guide 2, Guide 3]. So too are trade blocs (MGOs), insofar as businesses will lobby for expanded tariff-free trade areas within which they may outsource at lower cost to themselves [Guide 6].

At a national and local (city region) scale, a key theme must be the reaction to loss of jobs in “source” economies [Guide 7], but growth for emerging “host” economies. Sweatshop workers may be cast as “victims” or beneficiaries of global capitalism in this account according to the case studies used (outsourcing includes “white collar” work in Bangalore, for instance) or the candidate’s political convictions (although exploitation needs to be evidenced and not simply asserted). TNC shareholders may be recognized as being among the real winners of outsourcing [Guide 3].

Environmental aspects are likely to be a popular theme, notably in relation to pollution [Guide 4]. However, high band answers should make it clear that the problems result from outsourcing (so unreliable sub-contractors are the issue) and not simply the internationalization of trade.

It may not always be clear whether genuine outsourcing or a firm’s own division of labour is being discussed (for example, as a cause of de-industrialization in developed countries). The benefit of the doubt should be given and a band D mark could be awarded to answers that are insecure on the precise meaning of outsourcing but are strong on the varied geography of global shift.

There are many possible approaches and these should be assessed on their merits. Depth might compensate for lack of breadth.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

This question produced a disappointing set of responses on the whole. Too many candidates merely asserted, wrongly, that a simplistic MEDC–LEDC divide still exists. There was next to no acknowledgment of globally important hubs such as Mumbai or Sao Paulo or other key settlements in emerging economies (or peripheral "LEDCs" as they were portrayed in most accounts, despite the BRIC group’s key role in driving global GDP growth today). Overall, the cohort showed poor understanding of contemporary economic geography and the global pattern of hub regions.

The use of the word "hub" in the guide, and in this question, ought to be a clear signal to centres that the core–periphery literature dating from the 1970s is not, in itself, sufficient background reading for the current global interactions course. Candidates who relied exclusively on this outdated framework found themselves erroneously describing a global system within which a global periphery, that includes China and India, continues to provide raw materials for the manufacturing firms found in developed countries. Examiners were left wondering whether, in other contexts, such candidates would be able to explain the rise of the Asian tigers and BRIC economies, or the de-industrialization of the old global core.

Thus a widespread lack of familiarity with the concept of emerging economies as new global hubs (which must surely come from examining the latest KOF or Kearney indices) was seen. There was little mention of the activities of the world’s financial hubs (which have triggered the global economic turndown that now surrounds us).

The concept of scale was clearly the biggest problem. There was a lack of comprehension that world cities in middle-income and low-income nations can nonetheless be global hubs. Effective teaching about globalization and global interactions needs to move beyond the nation state as the only frame of reference for patterns of wealth and connectivity.

Outsourcing is clearly defined in the guide. Many themes pertaining both to foreign direct investment and also outsourcing, such as financial flows, transboundary pollution and the factors encouraging the growth of multi-governmental organizations are scattered through the guide. Good candidates who were familiar with the synthetic nature of the part (b) essay mode of assessment rose to the occasion. The best answers came complete with plans that included positive and negative (or short-term and long-term) impacts, sub-divided into themed consequences such as economic [Guide 2/3]), environmental [Guide 4], political [Guide 6],  and social [Guide 7].

Well-informed candidates were thus able to highlight how global networks of outsourcing have helped drive the trend towards regional trade bloc integration. Elsewhere, outsourcing was seen as a factor that can be responsible for poor health and safety standards (some asserted, perhaps correctly, that this was the cause of the Gulf of Mexico oil spill). Outsourcing of back office functions to India was a popular theme, whose consequences were seen as being both positive (rising incomes) and sometimes negative (long and unsociable hours for call centre workers).

Some discussed the social reaction/anti-globalization movements against outsourcing (linked with de-industrialization, for example, of US manufacturing hubs). A few even argued that outsourcing has introduced new kinds of geographical risks for TNCs who find their supply chains disrupted by recent hazards such as Thai floods, Japan’s tsunami and Icelandic ash clouds. This is a truly synthetic theme and one that future candidates could be encouraged to explore further.

In contrast, weaker candidates were uncertain as to the exact nature of outsourcing and were clearly not able to differentiate between outsourcing and FDI (for instance, when discussing the relocation of US manufacturing to the Mexican maquiladoras). If a good range of consequences were developed, however, such candidates were still allowed to achieve a sound mark.

Using examples, explain the factors responsible for the global spread of consumer culture.

“National governments cannot control global interactions.” Discuss this statement.

Consumer culture may be described and exemplified as the spread of purchasing habits (branded clothes, fast food, music), or analysed in greater depth as the spread of a capitalist worldview wherein everyday life is commoditized and branded. Multiple traits of consumer culture might be identified, including:

• changing tastes in food (linked with retail and restaurant TNCs)
• fashion (linked with global media corporations)
• music purchasing (linked with online platforms such as iTunes and YouTube).

The key factors that can be explained include:

• the expansion of TNCs in a drive for new markets (may involve glocalization)
• the growth of global media and ICT (operating either as an independent factor or as a byproduct of innovation by TNCs such as Microsoft and Apple)
• the concept of cultural imperialism (linked either to the activities of TNCs or superpower states with “soft power” such as the USA).

Good answers may note that the factors are interrelated and reinforce one another (TNCs drive innovation, for instance). Another approach might examine how different factors might be linked with different aspects/traits of consumer culture (the spread of designer clothes can be related to container shipping and TNCs; the purchasing of online games and music can be related to ICT).

For band C, expect two factors to be described and linked with the spread of culture and/or commodities.

At band D, expect either more detailed explanation of a range of factors linked with the spread of culture/commodities or greater explanation of what is meant by “the spread of consumer culture”.

By band E, expect both aspects to be addressed.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Management by national government may comprise migration controls, rules for FDI, terms attached to loans and aid, the issues of internet control and censorship. Successes and failure to control may be highlighted either between different countries, or different kinds of global interaction (trade/migration/information flows), or both.

Possible themes include:

• MGOs such as the EU and NAFTA as evidence the statement is correct and countries must now group together in order to try to manage global interactions in ways that reestablish some control [Guide 6]
• cultural globalization as an unstoppable force (or not) and national attempts to control flows of media and information [Guide 5]
• the power of global financial institutions eg IMF and its insistence that national governments institute reforms eg SAPs [Guide 3]
• migration issues and controls [Guide 3, 6, 7]
• government promotion of localism [Guide 7]
• transboundary pollution [Guide 4]
• government attitudes towards foreign direct investment and financial flows [Guide 2]
• military conflicts eg ISIS in the Middle East [current affairs].

Good answers may be structured around different kinds of global interactions (eg contrasts management of economic interactions and cultural globalization in the course of the essay). Another approach might be to discuss the effectiveness of the actions of different types of government (democracies and autocracies).

For band D, expect a structured discussion of how national governments control/cannot control different kinds of global interaction. This should include either a synthesis of several well evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or nuanced and evidenced
conclusion/evaluation of the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

The best answers explained what was meant by consumer culture, as opposed to “culture” in general. Candidates were often well-versed in geographical terminology and could write with confidence about cultural diffusion and imperialism. In contrast, some candidates produced a “common sense” response that a candidate of any subject might have written. These answers focused on the power of advertising and branding, often at great length. Sometimes, this was sufficient for band C or even D.

This popular question allowed a wide range of themes to be synthesized. The change in the power of national governments was often thoroughly interrogated by the strongest candidates. At the upper end, there was frank acknowledgment that opting out of economic globalization is not a realistic strategy for any leading industrialized nation, but that degrees of control over migration and information flows are still achievable.

Using located examples, analyse the importance of outsourcing for transnational corporations (TNCs).

“International migration is the main reason for the loss of distinctive local cultures.” Discuss this statement.

Outsourcing is when a company hands internal functions to an outside company (a client relationship), for example US/EU clothing companies outsource to Bangladesh; ICT outsourcing to Bangalore/Philippines; BP outsourcing of Gulf of Mexico oil rig operation to Halliburton; McDonald’s outsourcing the management of its restaurants to local companies in some states.

Outsourcing overlaps with foreign direct investment to a large extent if the TNC invests or has an ownership stake in the company it outsources to. There is considerable overlap between outsourcing and other forms of FDI (“offshore” branch plant construction) in terms of the important factors that drive these practices:

• cheap labour (and other low costs eg health and safety)
• low taxes (including use of Export Processing Zones/SEZs)
• local supplier’s ability to source cheap parts/materials or greater familiarity with market (glocalization).

These generic factors should be credited, even if the candidate’s link to proper outsourcing (as opposed to other forms of FDI) is insecure.

Good answers may show awareness that some companies may prefer to keep their operations in-house or may only outsource non-essential operations, or are beginning to “re-shore” operations to reduce supply chain risks (Japanese tsunami, disturbances in Ukraine, Nigeria, Kenya, etc). Another approach might be to analyse how some types/sectors of TNCs (mining operations, agribusinesses) may be less reliant on outsourcing than manufacturers and retailers with large and complex supply chains. Another approach might be to analyse how some TNCs, such as Amazon and Starbucks, have been criticized by the governments of sovereign states for the claim that they have “outsourced” operations to different subsidiaries of their own company (in an attempt to avoid corporation tax).

For band C, expect some description of the reasons why it is important for TNCs to have different operations/activities carried out in different places.

At band D, expect either more detailed explanation of why different operations/activities are carried out in different places or a good attempt to analyse why outsourcing is important for different TNCs.

By band E, expect both aspects to be addressed.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus might be how a range of reasons/factors, including migration, helps explain the loss (or not) of distinctive local cultures. Likely reasons include internet/media, tourism, rising wages in emerging economies and elsewhere/changing employment structures. Credit physical reasons too, such as suggested climate change refugees (Tuvalu, Maldives).

Alternatively, candidates might discuss the extent to which migration brings loss/harm or benefits to the world’s many local cultures in both source and host regions for migration. Rather than addressing other factors, the discussion can encompass a range of ways in which migration and diaspora growth impacts on local cultures, including their preservation (the cultural “fossilization” of diaspora source nations, for instance).

Possible themes relating to migration and/or local culture include:

• migration, diaspora and multiculturalism [Guide 5]
• homogenous urban landscapes [Guide 4]
• tourism and the tourist gaze [Guide 5]
• cultural imperialism [Guide 5]
• global media and TNCs as agents of change [Guide 5 and 7]
• nationalist movements [Guide 6]
• isolationism [Guide 7].

Good answers may discuss what is meant by “loss”: culture comprises many traits, some of which may persist while others are lost or change. Another approach might be to discuss the emergence of new hybrid or “melting point” cultures eg in World Cities: these may replace previously homogenous cultures but they can be just as distinctive as the more homogenous
cultures that were found there before.

For band D, expect a structured discussion, the central elements of which are migration, local cultures and possibly some additional reasons/factors. This should include either a synthesis of several well evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or nuanced and evidenced conclusion/evaluation of the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Outsourcing is a term that still causes confusion and was poorly understood by a surprising number of candidates. Typically, they used vague language, such as: “outsourcing is when a country uses the work force in another country”. Outsourcing is defined by the geography guide as “The concept of taking internal company functions and paying an outside firm to handle them. Outsourcing is done to save money, improve quality or free company resources for other activities.” Within the context of a geography examination paper (as opposed to business management), it may safely be assumed that a company which outsources its operations overseas becomes, by default, what we would term a TNC. The geography guide defines a TNC as “a firm that owns or controls productive operations in more than one country through foreign direct investment”. Significant global outsourcing relationships create a partnership (or global interaction) wherein both companies play a role in productive control. The client company may pay for training, or invest in the transfer of technology to the supplier company. The exam question also asked candidates to address the “importance” of the relationship for the Client Company, or TNC. Profitability was a key theme to explore here, linked with various low-cost factors of production. Well-developed examples were frequently supplied, usually Bangalore (call centres) or China (manufacturing). A few mentioned Bangladesh. Some of the best answers analysed the declining of outsourcing as a result of recent “reshoring” by risk-averse companies. Weaker candidates sometimes drifted off course and provided a lengthy cost-benefit analysis of outsourcing for India, rather than writing about the importance of outsourcing for companies.

The best answers were carefully structured around a range of possible factors, not just international migration, and used strong supporting evidence. Some of the strongest candidates offered a final substantiated judgment of whether migration is, or is not, the dominant factor. A minority of candidates misunderstood where the emphasis of the essay statement lies. They discussed whether migration was responsible for a loss, or gain, of culture. This approach was often hard to carry through and many floundered when it came to arguing coherently whether the presence of a diaspora community in a world city represents a loss, or gain, of “distinctive local cultures”.

Explain the causes and consequences of the international relocation of polluting industries and/or waste disposal.

“All societies, wherever they are, enjoy the benefits of a shrinking world.” Discuss this statement.

Polluting industries include manufacturing or mining operations with a large footprint and a polluting or dangerous character in the absence of regulation (examples might include Apple’s contractors in China). There are also international movements of waste (for recycling or disposal), for example, UK wastes to China (recycling) and European waste taken by contractors to Ivory Coast (dumping). The oil industry has brought polluting operations to many territories. While this is not strictly a “relocation”, the benefit of the doubt should be given to accounts of the expansion/diffusion of polluting industries (ie consequences of oil pollution in new deep water sites, for example, Gulf of Mexico, new sites in Niger delta, should be credited). Also credit eutrophication linked to agro-industry/agribusiness, etc.

The causes might include a quest for cheap sites (thus higher profits) and expect explanations to include details of labour costs, lack of red tape, etc. Weaker answers are likely to neglect causes, or provide simple assertions only (eg “there’s too much waste nowadays”).

Consequences for both physical environments (landscape, ecosystems) and people should be addressed. Some may be positive (eg recycling waste as a resource; FDI and its multiplier effects). Long-term litigation and quest for justice could even be a theme that is explored.

For band C, at least one cause and one consequence must be described (or a wider range of ideas listed) with some exemplification (of either one relocation or waste disposal example).

To access band D, expect:

• either more detailed knowledge of the causes and consequences (do not expect balance; case study consequences are likely to be more detailed and may use more than one example/industry, though this is not required)
• or some explanation of how a single incidence of relocation/disposal can have more varied consequences for different places/people (eg origin and destination), though less supporting detail is given.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

“Shrinking world” (time-space compression) should be explained and related to different ICT and transport technologies [Guide 2]. Increased migration can be credited as a symptom of a shrinking world (because migrants make use of transport). Trade blocs/MGOs, eg EU, can play a supporting role (because the removal of border controls removes intervening obstacles to migration/transport).

Possible economic benefits derived from connectivity include: more profitable TNCs, with work opportunities for outsourcing locations and locations in receipt of FDI [Guide 3] especially when long view is taken (eg signs of factory reform in Bangladesh). A range of sociocultural benefits can be explored that relate to the sharing of global media, the growth of social networks, etc [Guide 5]. The ease with which migrant remittances can be wired home (or money transferred via mobiles) might be explored [Guide 5]. There are many other benefits that can be mentioned, for example, access to branded commodities [Guide 5].

There are, of course, cases where the statement may not be true and societies remain non-globalized/disconnected. Expect examples of indigenous people, isolated tribes, or variation within societies, for example, subsistence farmers [Guide 7].

Another counterargument would be the “one-sided” benefits of connectivity, wherein poorer connected places are exploited as low-wage production sites, possibly suffering environmental problems [Guide 4]; the sociocultural reaction against globalization, and movements aiming to limit shrinking world effects in some way, for example, increased food localism or the resurgence of nationalism [Guide 6, 7]. Indigenous people may be victims, not beneficiaries, of global interactions [Guide 5]. A current affairs focus might be on internet privacy/rights.

For band C, the shrinking world/globalization (may not distinguish) must be described and its benefits commented on.

To access band D, expect:

• either both sides of the argument are addressed (some societies/places benefit, some do not not), displaying some synthesis of a range of ideas, mostly (but not always) linked to the idea of a shrinking world/technology and transport
• or some more explicit discussion of how “benefits” are not enjoyed by all people within the same society/not everyone agrees what is beneficial (eg some perspectives see globalization as a sovereignty threat).

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Explain how rising global demand for one raw material has led to environmental degradation.

“The barriers to global interactions are increasing, not decreasing.” Discuss this statement.

Raw materials may include fossil fuels, ores, timber or food stuffs such as soya. Any unexpected interpretations, the validity of which is not clear, must be referred to a team leader.

• Located impacts for degradation could include the Niger delta or Gulf of Mexico (oil), Brazil (timber/soya), shale gas (USA), oil sands (Canada).
• Specific impacts might include loss of biodiversity or acid rain. A good account of impacts that lacks locational detail can still reach the higher band if the process details are good.
• The idea of degradation might also be linked to the lifecycle of the raw material/product including waste disposal issues.
• Good answers may be structured to show different scales of environmental degradation (local and global) or may look at transmission of effects (questioning whether degradation occurs at the source or destination/market eg coal burning).

Details of rising demand are required for band E, or can help candidates to access band D if they are lacking details about environmental degradation. Rising demand could be linked specifically with the growth of emerging economies/rising affluence/growth of new consumer classes. Some credit can be given for suggesting population increases, although rising demand is in fact related far more to changing lifestyles in China, Brazil, Indonesia, etc.

At band D, expect either a detailed description of some range of environmental degradation, or a clear explanation of how/why rising demand plays a role.

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Global interactions may be defined as a diverse set of flows (economic, social, cultural, etc), potentially “setting the scene” for an essay which provides a nuanced conclusion that discusses the extent to which the statement is true for different types of global interaction.

Likely themes and barriers include:

• free trade versus protectionism (and the role trade blocs play); the focus will be loss of sovereignty and multi-governmental organizations (MGOs) [Guide 6]
• information exchange versus censorship, linked to growing importance of technology/“shrinking world” theory [Guide 2]
• “open-door” migration versus points systems and restrictions either in the context of economic migration or diaspora studies [Guide 3, Guide 5]
• some possible considerations of the now well-documented and growing risks associated with outsourcing/offshoring [Guide 3] – perhaps an “end of globalization” argument
• physical/environmental barriers may not be growing but are certainly falling due to overcoming of friction of distance [Guide 2]
• developed further, the migration and offshoring debates can be linked with the resurgence of nationalism and anti-globalization movements [Guide 6, Guide 7].

The double-edged effect of MGOs may be remarked on – namely, that they reduce barriers to internal exchanges while erecting barriers to external trade (eg through the adoption of a common external tariff in the case of the EU, thereby excluding some producers from access to European markets).

Good answers may conclude that the response to the question depends on the type of interaction that is being discussed (thus China is more open to flows of FDI than in the past, pre-1978; yet efforts to censor the internet have increased in line with its growing popularity). Some countries encourage economic interactions but attempt to curtail cultural ones.

At band D, expect either a detailed explanation of a variety of ways in which barriers are changing, or a more critical discussion of different kinds of barriers and interactions.

At band E, expect both.

Many mediocre responses were seen. Some very generalized impacts were described, with many candidates offering little beyond “pollution” or “global warming”. Also, the phrase “rising global demand” was glossed over in most cases, with candidates simply asserting that more oil or timber (the most popular choices) is needed today than in the past. Few could link the rising demand with important global development such as the rise of consumption in emerging economies. Higher level diploma geography candidates really ought to be in possession of supporting data in relation to the changing global pattern of wealth. One good starting point for updating content, already mentioned in a previous subject report for this paper, is this recent McKinsey report:

http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/consumer_and_retail/capturing_the_worlds_emerging_middle_class 

A pleasing number of candidates who chose this question were able to offer a proper evaluation that gave nuanced consideration to what is meant by a “barrier” (poverty, languages, and political obstacles were all possibilities). Many grasped the paradox that trade blocs simultaneously increase and decrease barriers (according to who is a member of the bloc, and who is not).

Using examples, distinguish between transboundary pollution and transnational waste movement.

“Due to global interactions, there is no longer a global periphery.” Discuss this statement.

Transboundary pollution (TBP) is pollution that crosses a national border accidently or inadvertently due to physical processes (atmosphere, currents, etc). Recent examples of transboundary pollution (TBP) include forest fires in Indonesia causing smog in Singapore; Chinese pollution reaching Japan; and radiation from Fukushima reaching the shores of the USA. Also credit acid rain (if clearly shown to be transboundary) and credit Chernobyl (1986). [The Gulf of Mexico oil spill was not a TBP event because only the USA was affected. Candidates using this example only may still attain band D according to other criteria, but ought not be awarded band E.]

Transnational waste movement (TWM) includes landfill in China originating in USA; European e-waste arriving in Accra (Ghana); ship-breaking in Bangladesh; Trafigura’s chemical waste from Europe arriving in Ivory Coast. This is a purposeful/intended global interaction/trade transaction. It is acceptable to view discarded household goods (eg clothes for charity) as a form of waste. Waste can also be a very valuable resource when recycled, so TWM can be seen as a positive interaction. Good answers are likely to provide detailed exemplification. They are also likely to make a better effort to distinguish (beyond simply employing comparative language such as “whereas”): eg TBP may involve the dispersal of point source pollution into multiple territories whereas TWM is a movement from one territory to another; TBP has negative impacts/costs money but TWM can also be positive/makes money; TBP is accidental but TWM is deliberate, etc).

For band C, expect some description of a TBP event and a TWM (do not expect balance).

At band D, expect either a detailed explanation of a TBP event and a TWM (do not expect balance) or a good attempt to distinguish between them.

By band E, expect both aspects to be addressed.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The global periphery may be defined as regions outside/beyond the core. Historically, some states were identified as being peripheral due to their spatial distance/isolation or lack of integration into economic and political systems. In 2015, this idea of peripheral states is only a very basic/antiquated starting point. A contemporary account might acknowledge also the existence of semi-peripheral states (middle-income countries) or the presence of important global hubs/cores such as Lagos in states that some people might still view as being part of a global periphery.

Another approach might be to discuss the extent to which various global flows and interactions (from international aid to social networks) have networked/connected the majority of the world’s states and a large proportion of their peoples. To give a counterargument, examples might be cited of isolated states and regions, from which we can infer the existence of a “global periphery”.

Possible themes include:

• economic globalization of low-income countries through trade, aid, loans [Guide 3] that may originate in EU/USA “core” countries but also emerging economies/BRICs/NICs [Guide 1 and 3]
• cultural interactions between countries in the core and periphery [Guide 5]
• isolated states eg North Korea, China (culturally); non-globalized tribal groups [Guide 6 and 7]
• the “shrinking world” effect that brings connectivity to previously peripheral places [Guide 3]
• branded commodities and global media that help to connect places through the growth of a common “core” culture (possibly modified by glocalization) which more and more places share [Guide 5].

Good answers may discuss differing degrees of “peripheral” states (perhaps including semiperiphery, non-globalized periphery). Another approach might be to discuss the multi-scale existence of core and periphery patterns (recognizing the global importance of world cities in Asia, Africa and Latin America). Another approach might be to discuss what is meant by “global interactions” in the context of this question (referring to a variety of trade flows, aid flows, migration flows, information flows, etc).

For band D, expect a structured discussion of how global interactions have contributed to the disappearance/persistence/modification of a “global periphery” of places/people. This should include either a synthesis of several well evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or nuanced and evidenced conclusion/evaluation of the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Most candidates understood clearly the difference between transboundary pollution and transnational waste movement. Relevant examples were used, although the detail and accuracy was variable. Very few used Fukushima as a case study, preferring to use the 30-year-old Chernobyl example instead. This is a pity and clearly goes against the ethos of the course which is stated on page 13 of the geography guide. The best answers understood the significance of the command term “distinguish” and were awarded full marks accordingly.

A handful of excellent answers showed deep understanding of how global interactions have modified the previously binary world system (the “north/south” or “core/periphery” of the immediate post-war period). They wrote about the evolution of a far more complex world, beginning with the rise of the Asian Tigers in the 1950s. Other strong answers dealt with the statement on a flow-by-flow basis and understood that a country like China could be regarded as being part of an economic core but had chosen to remain peripheral to social networks such as Facebook. Weaker answers tended to focus mainly on isolated tribes and the Sahel as non-globalized places. Done well, however, band D was still achievable through the use of this narrow approach.

Explain how the actions of world trading organizations and financial institutions (such as the International Monetary Fund) influence global financial flows.

Discuss the economic and environmental consequences of more people choosing to buy locally produced food and goods rather than globalized products.

AO1/2 Indicative content
Credit reference to the IMF, World Bank, WTO, New Development Bank (NDB), China Development Bank. Also credit trading blocs/MGOs such as ASEAN, APEC, NAFTA and EU/EEA.

Financial flows may include:

• loans (with structural adjustment programmes)
• commodities (with the WTO encouraging free trade)
• remittances (linked with EU rules; or development policies of the World Bank)
• movements of capital and FDI (made easier by EU or NAFTA, etc)
• aid flows (providing this can be linked with the work of world trading organizations and financial institutions).

Credit other valid flows and institutions.

Good answers might provide data and evidence for financial flows or they may offer a structured (AO4) explanation of how different institutions influence different types of flow. Another approach might be to explain financial flows in ways that show they are sometimes interrelated and could influence one another (lending can help a country to develop, in turn attracting FDI; this in turn may encourage migration and remittances).

For band C (4–6), two financial flows should be outlined and linked weakly with the influence/actions of one or more financial institutions.

For band D (7–8), expect a structured, well-evidenced analysis of

• either two or more detailed financial flows
• or detailed actions/ influence of different named institutions

For band E (9–10), expect both band D traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Possible AO1/2 indicative content

Themes for synthesis from the geography guide include:

• fewer food miles
• reduced carbon/ecological footprint / climate change mitigation
• less trade/financial flows between core/periphery (de-globalization)
• renewed economic growth in localities where local production is renewed
• rejection of globalization production / TNCs / falling profits for agribusiness
• reduced interdependency between countries
• protectionism / isolation / less need for MGOs.

Answers scoring highly according to the AO3 criteria for evaluation:

• might be structured around different kinds of geographical consequences (eg consequences for old producer and new producer regions; costs and benefits for different groups/places)
• might systematically discuss the effects of changes for different types of globalized product.

For band C (5–8), expect weakly-evidenced outlining of two or three relevant economic and/or environmental themes from the geography guide.

For band D (9–12), expect

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide (both economic and environmental)
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13–15), expect both of these traits.

Using examples, explain how financial flows transfer wealth between places.

“Glocalization is the most important reason why some transnational corporations (TNCs) have grown in size and influence over time.” Discuss this statement.

Financial flows (based on geography subject guide) include loans, debt relief/repayment, international aid, FDI, profit leakage and remittances (do not credit “goods”). The spatial focus could be the global core and periphery (although these terms are dynamic and contested and a variety of interpretations are acceptable, so long as named examples are also included). Some answers may additionally explain that there are legal and illegal (criminal, informal) mechanisms of money transfer; or can explain how “transfer pricing” and offshore tax havens are used by TNCs to transfer money between places.

Better answers may provide superior evidence/case study details of the wealth flows (quoting dollar values or percentage contributions to GDP, etc). They may also consider the varied directions of the flows (whether towards core/MEDCs or towards periphery/LDCs). They may even consider flows at the local scale too (eg may consider how international aid or FDI flows transfer wealth towards an LDC, yet do not necessarily reach the poorest people/parts of that state).

For band C, at least two financial flows must be described with some exemplification of one flow (either of places or the size/scale of the flows).

To access band D, expect:

• either more detailed knowledge of the major financial flows (may look at how a wider range operate; may provide much more detailed evidence for a smaller range)
• or some explanation of how some major financial flows can operate in different directions (may even consider different scales).

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Responses would be expected to define glocalization, providing examples of its effectiveness as a strategy for bridging/building new markets [Guide 5].

A fully synthetic and evaluative answer should debate the statement with reference to other, possibly more important, factors. These could include growth in technology associated with globalization, for example, containers or ICT [Guide 2] or the growth of MGOs allowing easier access to markets, possibly triggering mergers and acquisitions (for example, Cemex and domestic cement companies within NAFTA trade bloc) [Guide 6]. The economic factors that triggered global shift (such as cheap labour) are important and the role of outsourcing could be discussed [Guide 3]. Other strategies employed by global brands may also be addressed that explain diffusion over time and space, such as the promotion of consumerism through brand advertising [Guide 5].

Some candidates may conceptualize TNCs as a broad category that includes energy companies and agribusinesses, which would not be expected to adopt glocalization to the same extent as branded commodity providers and the service industry (global banking).

For band C, at least one glocalization strategy must be described and its effectiveness commented on.

To access band D, expect:

• either other more detailed reasons for TNC growth (thereby allowing the truth of the statement to be discussed, using at least one other theme synthesized from the subject guide, probably the role of technology/transport)
• or some more explicit discussion of how glocalization helps some TNCs (perhaps not all) to develop their size and influence (eg cultural acceptance is gained in varied geographical contexts/new markets) over time.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Using examples, analyse the role civil societies play in national resistance to global interactions.

Examine the ways in which the world’s cities and their societies are becoming increasingly uniform.

AO1/2 Indicative content
Civil society is defined in the geography guide as: “Any organization or movement that works in the area between the household, the private sector and the state to negotiate matters of public concern. Civil societies include non-governmental organizations (NGOs), community groups, trade unions, academic institutions and faith-based organizations.”

Citizens can:

• form anti-globalization movements and groups (eg Occupy)
• vote for/establish nationalist parties/policies (anti-immigration eg UKIP; resource nationalism)
• support local sourcing or other initiatives
• organize resistance movements against globalization/global capitalism/modernity which are informed by their ethnicity/identity (eg First Nations in Canada; Ogoni in Nigeria; Amish in USA).

Credit other valid forms of civil society resistance in particular national contexts.

Do not credit government or state actions. Do not credit actions of TNCs.

Good answers are likely to provide detailed exemplification. They are also likely to make a better effort to analyse “the role” that citizens/organizations play in determining how a country/government responds to global interactions/globalization (direct and indirect, or lawful and illegal means, for example). Or they may be more
selective in the way they analyse global interactions (eg by breaking this concept into constituent parts such as flows of migrants, imports, data, etc).

For band C (4–6), an outline should be provided of either the general resistance role of civil society or two weakly-evidenced examples of civil society resistance.

For band D (7–8), expect a structured, well-evidenced analysis of

• either two or more detailed examples of civil society resistance
• or the varied ways civil society plays a role in resisting global interactions.

For band E (9–10), expect both band D traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Possible AO1/2 Indicative content

Uniformity in this context refers to global homogeneity, ie all places coming to resemble one another through the adoption of common visual styles and forms. While it can be argued that many cities are becoming increasingly uniform, the proposition needs to be examined more carefully in the context of societies (many of which now have record levels of diversity due to migration).

• Themes for synthesis from the geography guide include:urban landscape/styles
• migrants/diaspora/ethnic neighbourhoods
• presence of TNCs/logos/brands
• cultural uniformity (languages spoken, foods consumed, restaurants)
• technology and the “global village” and time–space compression.

Do not over-credit answers that argue against the proposition that places are becoming uniform: this is not asked for. However, it is perfectly acceptable to reflect critically on the degree of uniformity as part of the examination of the statement.

Answers scoring highly according to the AO3 criteria for evaluation:

• might be structured around an examination of different aspects and degrees of uniformity (eg contrasts entirely homogenous “clone towns” with cities that have retained a greater degree of including character/heritage, and some examination of the reasons for this)
• might examine more carefully the distinction between the city landscape and the actual societies that live there (which can be very diverse, despite an apparently “uniform” landscape).

For band C (5–8), expect weakly-evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide which focus on how cities/societies are becoming uniform.

For band D (9–12), expect

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13–15), expect both of these traits.

Analyse the consequences of one specific transboundary pollution event.

“The negative effects of globalization on cultural traits have been overstated.” Discuss this statement.

A transboundary pollution event is one which has damaging effects for more than one country. It is most likely that candidates will analyse a major oil spill or air pollution event. “Event” strongly suggests a single dated occurrence but some credit should still be given to an account of a more pervasive problem (such as acid rain). Thus, for band E, the account must clearly relate to transboundary pollution (thus the pollution type is named, for example, sulphur dioxide or crude oil; affected states are clearly identified). Further, the temporal aspect should be addressed: if not a single event (for example, an oil spill) then a period (year or decade) must be identified (giving us a broad interpretation of “event”). An account of acid rain that is not geographically or historically specific should not move beyond band C. If both are there, band E is possible.

It should be made explicit who is affected and why the event is “transboundary”. The consequences may include: immediate ecological and environmental harm; longer clear-up operations; subsequent changes in national and/or international legislature; implications for the polluter (such as poor publicity and “PR nightmare” for TNCs).

The best answers may have a range of varied consequences (such as political/governance response) and will not simply focus on ecological damage.

Pollution events such as the Bhopal incident are not transboundary but may achieve band C if the concept of transnational has been well explored (idea of TNCs moving their pollution/unsafe operations overseas). The movement of recycling wastes to China may be marked in the same way (it is hardly an event, but some limited credit for the transboundary/transnational aspects of the case study could be given if it has been well written).

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The negative effects candidates should be familiar with include the threat of cultural homogenization associated with the diffusion of western, and latterly Japanese, cultural traits and branded commodities. In extreme cases this can be described as cultural imperialism [Guide 5]. The cultural production of homogenized landscapes may be commented on [Guide 4].

The question invites discussion of whether this first viewpoint has been overstated. The strongest responses will recognize alternative responses exist and globalization can be challenged/contested. They may suggest a variety of alternative outcomes, for example, hybridization/glocalization of branded products [Guide 7], or growth of diaspora music and art that draws on global influences [Guide 5]. More extreme forms of rejection also exist, such as throwing out TNCs and the IMF [Guide 3] or the resistance of nationalist parties to MGO membership [Guide 6]. At a local level, people may “opt out” and pursue strategies such as local sourcing of food (food preferences being a cultural trait) [Guide 7].

The persistence of diaspora traits is also clear evidence of cultural resilience (that is, the idea that cultural traits can easily survive) [Guide 5]. Equally, it may be argued that some cultures have remained free of global influences by choice, for example, Bhutan [Guide 7].

The process of cultural homogenization – if it exists – can be very complex and alternative viewpoints should be credited on their merits.

At bands D and E, both sides of the argument should be addressed, although balance need not be expected if the candidate has a strong, evidenced argument that mostly agrees or disagrees with the title.

A wide variety of cultural traits can be accepted, including any that are not specifically mentioned in the syllabus. Answers that rely heavily on just one or two case studies (especially if their relevance to contemporary globalization is spurious, such as early encounters between westerners and the Dani tribe) are likely to be too narrow to receive much credit for assessment objective 3 and are unlikely to progress beyond band C.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

A checklist for an appropriate example of a transboundary pollution event has three boxes to tick. Candidates should ask:

• Is it an example of human-induced pollution, such as sulphur emissions?
• Is the example transboundary? (While many used the recent BP Gulf of Mexico oil spill, few were able to describe any legitimate transboundary effects.)
• Can they describe their case study as an "event" – something of a clearly stated duration? (This might be a single event such as a nuclear accident, but could be a longer-duration event such as Kuwaiti oil fires, or even acid rain during the1970s or possibly ozone depletion in the early 1980s, whereas "global warming" since 1750 is hard to justify as an "event".)

The examples that worked best were Chernobyl (although this is a slightly antiquated example, its effects are still felt today) and the far more recent Japanese tsunami (which quickly became a transboundary event, with nuclear radiation detected on the US Pacific coast within two weeks of the explosion).

A few more sketch maps would have been useful here, as some case studies were poorly located and the spatial extent of the pollution weakly understood. Among weaker candidates, the interpretation of "consequences" tended to be quite limited and almost entirely short-term and overwhelmingly negative, even for events that actually led to substantial improvements in practice, regulations and legislation.

The provocative statement forced weaker candidates to attempt some sort of evaluation and to therefore present conflicting evidence, which was pleasing to see. The most popular themes were the modernization of indigenous peoples and the glocalization concept. Urban landscapes were sometimes included too. A few tackled diaspora but not many. Given that this is a geography exam, there was a disappointing lack of attention to scale. What is happening at a planetary level (loss of languages etc.) is very different from what happens at a local scale in world cities/global hubs, where diversity has never been greater or richer in many cases.

Overly historical accounts should be discouraged as the focus is meant to be contemporary globalization (which is widely accepted as either a post-war or even post-1980s phenomenon). The best responses were synthetic and covered five or six themes; in contrast, many weaker answers devoted two pages to the trials and tribulations of the Dani tribe and one page to the contents of McDonald’s menus, resulting in a mediocre performance overall.

Using examples, distinguish between cultural imperialism and cultural diffusion.

Examine the range of responses to the loss of national sovereignty that globalization can bring.

There is no universal agreement on the precise meaning of these terms, but expect a general distinction to be made between voluntary/consented changes (diffusion) and enforced/pressured changes (imperialism). In reality, there is a spectrum of pressure, and candidates may take different positions on this. All arguments should be judged on their individual merits.

Cultural imperialism denotes the projection of power – wherein a subaltern community or subordinate country experiences the “top-down”/forced imposition of cultural traits eg religion (missionaries), language, legal structures, dress codes, etc. Examples might include English language insistence in some Alaskan Inuit schools in recent times; or China in Tibet today; Indonesia and East Timor. Global domination of English – via the internet – is another contemporary theme, or American cultural hegemony (Hollywood, etc).

Cultural diffusion denotes a wider set of processes of cultural spread of which imperialism is just one avenue. Traits may be sought out and adopted voluntarily(eg Japanese teenagers adopting US music, film, etc). There are many avenues for diffusion, notably migration and music (via the internet). Adoption of Mexican diaspora cultural traits (especially food) by wider US society might be explored (or parallel examples elsewhere, eg UK, Sweden).

Political viewpoints may differ as to how the actions of TNCs should be categorized (the spread of consumerism may be seen either as a form of imperialism, or as diffusion) and different arguments should be judged on their own merits and in light of the evidence presented.

Good answers may touch on the growing projection of eg Indian and Chinese culture as exemplification, rather than being restricted entirely to historical European and USA superpower examples.

To access band C, both concepts/processes must be addressed and examples provided; and at band D, an attempt at distinguishing should be made, with specific examples of both provided (though the distinction may not be entirely convincing, because the concepts are sophisticated ones).

To access band E, the response should be well-balanced, well-articulated and well-exemplified.

Other approaches may be equally valid. Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Loss of sovereignty describes a state surrendering legislative power (eg can no longer act unilaterally when setting tariffs, migration controls etc). Loss of sovereignty could also be seen as a growing dependency on foreign-based TNCs, and foreign influences on national culture, etc. Some may argue the retreat of national identity, due to cultural diffusion [Guide 5] is progressive (“global citizen” ideas).

Reasons for loss of actual political sovereignty could include the growth of multi-governmental organizations (MGOs) or trade blocs, the actions of global organizations such as World Bank and IMF, the growth of international treaties and courts, as well as the excessive power of large global corporations [Guide 6]. Do not expect all of these themes to be covered, even in a good answer.

The economic logic behind MGOs may be appreciated and the benefits this can have for freer financial flows and migration flows, which may bring wealth to host and source regions [Guide 3]. Thus, some groups/companies/governments respond to globalization by embracing the benefits associated with MGO membership (weaker answers may simply cite the benefits, rather than explaining why some businesses show enthusiasm for MGO membership).

The negative response against globalization – such as resurgence of nationalism and opposition to migration in the EU – are likely themes [Guide 6] that can be extended through the analysis of the reaction of civil society and the organized rejection of this aspect of globalization, perhaps through political or religious pressure groups.

There is also the larger-scale idea of countries “opting out” of globalization (N Korea, Bhutan) [Guide 7]. These may determine what degree of sovereignty is ceded (not all European nations have joined EU, for instance).

Positive responses to globalization can thus be weighed against the fear of possible losses, costs and challenges. Any conclusion reached will be context-dependent. The arguments may be different for an account focused on the EU, in comparison to a discussion of NAFTA or MERCOSUR.

Band C answers describe a narrow range of responses that are linked to globalization or may explain why sovereignty is lost/threatened (but do not link this to the responses of particular actors). At the upper end of this level, there may be a simple, assertive conclusion based on a narrow synthesis of information.

For band D there should be a synthesis of several evidenced themes taken from the subject guide or a conclusion that reflects on a range of responses (perhaps weighing the net balance of positive and negative responses, or taking into account the differing perspectives of different actors). At band E, expect both of these elements (both synthesis and some proper evaluation).

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

This topic is clearly taught very differently by different centres. Some regard McDonaldization as a form of imperialism (in the neo-colonial mould), whereas others see it as a more pervasive form of cultural diffusion (on the basis that no-one is forced to eat a Big Mac at gunpoint). Either political view is fine, provided it can be justified and argued. Some good answers linked the diffusion/imperialism distinction with inequalities in power (that is, they contrasted an essentially one-way exchange, imperialism, with a two-way exchange of culture, diffusion). Another popular interpretation involved analysing cultural imperialism as the way culture is “rolled out” globally by powerful TNCs, whereas cultural diffusion was explained as being the “grass roots” embracing of traits belonging to migrant/diaspora groups by the wider population. Again, this was a fine approach to take if it could be argued coherently. In conclusion, there was no definitive “right” answer here; rather, there was an entire spectrum of “right” answers. “Wrong” answers, in contrast to these, typically tended to be self-contradictory (that is, the actions of TNCs were described as being both imperialism and diffusion, with no actual distinction made).

The subject guide (part 3, section 6) provides a teaching focus on geopolitical aspects of the loss of sovereignty (that is, the creation of MGOs) but also widens the geographical inquiry to encompass the power of TNCs. Thus, the cultural imperialism concept can be used in this wider context too, and many candidates made the connection. But it was a shame that some of those who chose this topic did not grasp the centrality of MGOs to the discussion at all, and knew little about the geopolitics of trade bloc membership and the mixed reaction of civil society. Some other weak responses did not answer the question directly and instead wrote only about how loss of sovereignty happens, not what the “range of responses” to this then are. Thus, they could write about English language spreading globally and threatening other tongues but did not, for instance, examine the response of either the French or Chinese government to this (setting quotas for the amount of foreign-language music, or films, respectively). In contrast, the best answers were properly synthetic and covered all of the key themes. Some showed very good current affairs knowledge of events in Greece and the Eurozone, or of “resource nationalism” (another reaction) in South America.

Using examples, explain the relationship between transport innovation and reduced friction of distance.

“Every country will eventually lose its distinctive national identity as a result of global interactions.” Discuss this statement.

Friction of distance is the barrier to the exchange of goods, services, ideas created by slow/limited/expensive transport. Over time, increased connectivity through transport has reduced friction of distance (changing our perception of time/space barriers).

Candidates may explore the relationship through the use of a timeline, and perhaps a diagram, showing how transport times have fallen as a result of successive transport “revolutions” (bicycle, boat, car train, ’plane, etc). Also credit accompanying technologies eg refrigeration for perishables and intermodal transport. Candidates may be familiar with the associated geographical concept of time–space convergence (in other words, we perceive that we inhabit a “shrinking world” as distant places “feel” nearer). Done well, this could be sufficient for the higher mark bands.

A different approach might be to look at more detailed case studies of particular technologies and their application (eg the speed with which flowers from Kenya are flown to Europe; or the speed with which containers can bring manufactured goods from EPZs in China to the USA). This approach is sufficient for band D even if the “relationship” is not particularly clear.

Finally, the subject guide specifies that candidates should have studied speed and capacity changes for two types of transport network. They might draw on this as part of their answer. However, they should be careful to focus on the reduced friction of
distance as the network is modernized, or extended into areas that were previously “switched off” (and thus took a longer time to reach).

Credit may be given for some discussion of the role that telecom networks play in transporting data and information, “eradicating” the friction of distance altogether.

Band C answers are likely to describe some specific details of transport history, but with little/no development of “friction of distance” (besides saying it has lessened).

At band D, expect either a clearer explanation of the changing relationship over time (may use the concept of time–space convergence) or effective use of detailed examples to explain how transport connects distant places together with reduced
travel time.

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus should be national (or group) identity although credit can be given for groups within a nation eg Amish (USA), Welsh (UK), tribes (Amazon). Discussion of a diaspora’s “national” identity (eg the identity of the Chinese in USA) may also be credited. Expect candidates to take a range of approaches and to hold a range of views about what factors or processes make a place distinctive/less distinctive.

Possible themes for discussion in agreement with the statement:

• a range of issues can be discussed pertaining to cultural dilution/cultural imperialism/immigration/multiculturalism [Guide 5]. Different cultural traits may be discussed eg language, diet, music, religion, etc
• evidence may be cited in support of the proposition that increasing cultural homogeneity is unavoidable/irreversible, for instance international migration or the spread of branded commodities [Guide 5] or the homogenization of urban/cultural landscapes [Guide 4]
• sovereign states risk losing political autonomy due to their membership of MGOs (especially the case for the EU) or in relation to wealth/leverage of TNCs [Guide 6], influence of IMF/World Bank [Guide 3]. 

Possible themes for discussion in disagreement with the statement:

• many countries have experienced a resurgence in nationalism/regionalism [Guide 6], for instance as evidenced by programmes of nationalization (Bolivia) or attempts to limit the dominance of English (in France’s case)
• there are instances of states or societies opting out of globalization/isolationism (eg, China’s stance on internet access; North Korea or until recently Myanmar; Amish communities in USA) [Guide 7]
• glocalized/hybrid outcomes can still be highly distinctive or unique [Guide 7]. 

A more critical, thoughtful or nuanced response might take the view that:

• national identity has many aspects, not all of which are threatened, eg, by MGO membership [Guide 6]
• other foci for identity may be becoming more important than national identity for many people, eg, diaspora identity.

At band C, some impacts on national/group identity/culture should be described and linked with global interactions such as migration, information flow etc. 

Band D should either provide a wider and more balanced discussion of the statement or offer a more critical discussion of what is meant by “distinctive national identity”.

At band E, expect both.

“Friction of distance” and transport innovation appears to be a well-understood and well-learned area of the curriculum. Even the weakest candidates were able to provide a short descriptive account of different modes of transport improving over time (in terms of the reduced time taken to move people or goods between locations). Many had learned the topic in advance in some depth, with accompanying locational details and data. This was not, however, always sufficient to reach the highest markband available. Some conceptual sophistication was also expected, such as clear, well-explained linkages with the concept of time–space convergence (or time–space compression). Alternatively, greater geographical knowledge was expected of how, in context, the friction of distance has lessened for specific global flows, such as commodity movements, thereby linking specific locales (such as the flower farms sited around Lake Naivasha, Kenya and the flower markets near Old Street, London, England). In contrast, band C answers often provided greater detail of, say, the technical specifications of jet engines, yet went on to merely assert that this allows “people” to “move around the world quicker”.

Many candidates performed a synthesis of the following topics: the influence of the McDonald’s corporation, national membership of trade blocs (especially the EU), the spread of English at the expense of native languages, the erosion of national traditions as a result of indigenous peoples’ contact with tourists, the dissemination of music and film through the internet, the growing homogenization of world cities, the prosperity of diaspora populations, and the resurgence of nationalism as a reaction to globalization (some candidates showed good contemporary knowledge of political movements in the EU). Arranged in a way that provided both support for, and rejection of, the statement, this was usually sufficient for band D. However, the sophistication with which these complex ideas were handled usually left a lot to be desired in work around the C/D boundary (see comments below on how performance could be improved in the future).

Using examples, analyse how global financial flows can be affected by the actions of governments.

Discuss why anti-globalization movements/groups are found in most countries.

Financial flows include movements of money/credit/investment. Strictly, they should not include movements of goods/raw materials, although in reality there is some overlap (investments by TNCs underpin to flows of goods) and where appropriate the benefit of the doubt should be given.

National governments may directly transfer money via international aid programmes (bilateral or multilateral contributions), loans (including sovereign wealth funds) and investment (state-owned companies may purchase assets abroad). They indirectly affect financial flows through their policy-making. This can impact on migration (and thus remittances) and the investment patterns of TNCs (and thus flows of FDI, including investment, acquisitions, outsourcing). National governments also protect their economy from financial currency inflows/outflows. Money laundering is another possible theme.

Also credit use of multi-governmental organizations (and the way flows can accelerate with removal of tariffs/market expansion) and the intergovernmental nature of financial institutions/global governance (IMF and World Bank).

For band C, at least two financial flows should be described with some exemplification and a link established with government(s) (do not expect balance).

For band D, either more than two flows should be analysed and exemplified, or two flows analysed in a structured way that conceptualizes different types of influence (direct and indirect) or governments (national, MGOs, IGOs).

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus is on the ubiquity of resistance to globalization. The statement is not intended as a challenge and no counter-argument is required.

Different reasons for resistance need to be identified; the reasons are not the same for all countries. To achieve the highest band (a well-developed answer), details of one or more actual anti-globalization movements/groups must be included as part of the account (rather than just reasons why globalization might be resisted by people in general).

Possible anti-globalization themes (expect examples of actual movements/groups for some but not all) include:

• anti-globalization movements (named groups are expected) [Guide 6,7]
• migration, diaspora and multiculturalism [Guide 5]
• the homogenizing power of global media and TNCs [Guide 5, 7]
• opposition to migration (may have names of political groups/parties) [Guide 6]
• opposition to IMF/SAPs [Guide 3]
• environmental concerns (example of civil society group/movement) [Guide 4]
• cultural imperialism (may refer to indigenous movement/protest) [Guide 5]
• resource nationalism (and populist/nationalist movements) [Guide 6]
• deindustrialization and outsourcing [Guide 2,3]
• food miles and local sourcing movements (may name organization) [Guide 7].

Good answers scoring highly at AO3 may discuss globalization as a complex process, the effects of which are felt everywhere, albeit in varying ways, giving rise to movements/groups. Another approach may be to discuss how the veracity of the statement depends on what local effects of globalization are most strongly felt/perceived in a different locale (and perspectives may vary on this, even within the same locale).

For band D, there should either be a structured synthesis of several well-evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or a properly evidenced conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) that critically discusses the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.